Avsnitt
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Echo chambers are a growing concern in today’s social and political landscape, reinforcing existing beliefs and fostering distrust. Some argue that civility isn’t owed to those entrenched in these environments, while others suggest that moderate incivility is justified in response to problematic views. But what if there’s a better way?
In this episode, we explore an alternative vision inspired by Chinese philosophy. Emily's guest, Kyle van Oosterum, introduces the concept of ‘reparative civility’—a framework rooted in Confucian traditions that aims to rebuild fractured social relationships. Kyle is a Research Fellow in Political Philosophy at UCL’s Digital Speech Lab, specializing in political theory, social epistemology, and democratic discourse.
Mentioned in this episode:
Digital Speech LabKyle van Oosterum (2025) Confucian Harmony, Civility, and Echo Chambers. Journal of Applied Philosophy.UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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Polarisation is a defining feature of contemporary politics, raising concerns among many observers. People on the left and right—liberals and conservatives—often seem to inhabit entirely different worlds, holding fundamentally distinct perspectives on reality and morality. But what underpins these divisions? Are they rooted in deep-seated moral intuitions that we are born with or develop in childhood? Or do they stem from our present circumstances and the media landscape that shapes our understanding of the world?
In this episode, we explore groundbreaking research by two scholars from the UCL Department of Political Science—Dr Jack Blumenau and Prof Ben Lauderdale. Their work offers fresh insights into the nature of political disagreement, challenging conventional wisdom about its origins. Jack join us to discuss these findings. (Jack Blumenau, Associate Professor of Political Science and Quantitative Research Methods.)
Mentioned in this episode:
Jack Blumenau and Ben Lauderdale. (2024) ‘Liberals and Conservatives Rely on Very Similar Sets of Foundations When Comparing Moral Violations’, American Political Science ReviewBenjamin Lauderdale and Jack Blumenau. 2025. “ Polarization over the priority of political problems.” American Journal of Political ScienceUCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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Saknas det avsnitt?
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While one in five people in the UK is disabled, the proportion of disabled individuals among elected representatives is significantly lower. Despite broader discussions on inclusive politics, disability remains an often-overlooked aspect of the conversation. For many people working in this area, addressing such challenges isn’t just about fairness; it’s also about ensuring that disabled citizens have their voices heard in political decision-making.
A new book addressing these challenges was published last year, and a recent article in The Political Quarterly highlights its key themes. The book and article explore the structural barriers that disabled candidates and politicians face and provide actionable recommendations for change.
In this episode, we speak with the co-authors of both the book and the article:
Prof Elizabeth Evans – Professor of Politics at the University of Southampton.Dr Stefanie Reher – Reader in Political Science at the University of Strathclyde.Join us as we discuss the systemic obstacles, potential solutions, and the importance of disability-inclusive politics.
Mentioned in this episode:
Stefanie Reher and Elizabeth Evans. "No Level Playing Field: Barriers to Disability Representation in Politics" The Political QuarterlyElizabeth Evans and Stefanie Reher. "Disability and Political Representation" Oxford University Press.UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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Artificial intelligence is increasingly being touted as a game-changer across various sectors, including public services. But while AI presents significant opportunities for improving efficiency and effectiveness, concerns about fairness, equity, and past failures in public sector IT transformations loom large. And, of course, the idea of tech moguls like Elon Musk wielding immense influence over our daily lives is unsettling for many.
So, what are the real opportunities AI offers for public services? What risks need to be managed? And how well are governments—particularly in the UK—rising to the challenge?
In this episode, we dive into these questions with three expert guests who have recently published an article in The Political Quarterly on the subject:
Helen Margetts – Professor of Society and the Internet at the Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, and Director of the Public Policy Programme at The Alan Turing Institute. Previously, she was Director of the School of Public Policy at UCL.
Cosmina Dorobantu – Co-director of the Public Policy Programme at The Alan Turing Institute.
Jonathan Bright – Head of Public Services and AI Safety at The Alan Turing Institute.
Mentioned in this episode:
Margetts, H., Dorobantu, C. and Bright, J. (2024), How to Build Progressive Public Services with Data Science and Artificial Intelligence. The Political Quarterly.UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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The relationship between religion and violence is a subject of enduring debate. Religion is often portrayed as a force for peace and compassion. Yet history is littered with instances where religious actors have been involved in conflict. What conditions make religious organizations more likely to engage in violence? And what lessons can policymakers learn to prevent it?
In this episode, Prof Alan Renwick dives into these questions with Dr. Manuel Vogt, Associate Professor of International Security at UCL. Drawing on new research, he explores how both global forces and local factors shape the relationship between religion and violence.
Mentioned in this episode:
Pischedda, C., & Vogt, M. (2023). When Do Religious Organizations Resort to Violence? How Local Conditions Shape the Effects of Transnational Ideology. EthnopoliticsUCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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Parliament is at the heart of democracy—it’s where voters are represented, laws are debated, and key decisions are made. But who really controls what gets discussed and how time is allocated?
In the UK, that power lies overwhelmingly with the government, leaving most MPs with little say over what they debate. That seems odd—after all, parliament is supposed to be sovereign. So why does it allow the government, a supposedly subordinate body, to set its agenda?
To unravel this, Prof Alan Renwick is joined by Dr Tom Fleming, Lecturer in British and Comparative Politics at UCL and a member of the UCL Constitution Unit.
Mentioned in this episode:
Fleming, Thomas G., Simon Hix and Radoslaw Zubek. 2024. “ The Origins of Centralized Agenda Control at Westminster: Consensus or Controversy?” Legislative Studies QuarterlyThe controversial origins of centralised agenda control at Westminster. Constitution Unit BlogUCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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Democratic elections ideally involve discussions of the challenges and opportunities facing the nation, and of the policies that might best address them. Yet real-world elections rarely seem to fulfil those hopes.
One of the alternative realities found in many countries today is the politics of clientelism, where candidates effectively buy votes by rendering services to particular individuals, families, or other groups within society. How can systems where such practices are entrenched be nudged towards more so-called programmatic competition based on competing policy visions?
Alan Renwick is joined by Dr Jeremy Bowles, Lecturer in Comparative Politics at UCL Political Science.
Mentioned in this episode:
Bowles, J. and Larreguy, H. (2025) ‘Who Debates, Who Wins? At-Scale Experimental Evidence on the Supply of Policy Information in a Liberian Election’, American Political Science ReviewUCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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Getting convicted of a crime can have lots of further, harmful consequences, perhaps you’ll lose your home or job. Yet those consequences don’t fall equally: some might go back to something like their previous lives after imprisonment, where others can’t. And often that has to do with wider social injustices. So, is that unfair? Ought the state make punishment more proportionate?
Today’s guest is Dr Helen Brown Coverdale, Lecturer in Political Theory at UCL Political Science. Helen's research explores these issues, arguing that we should reform punishment to mitigate some of these harms.
Mentioned in this episode:
Helen Brown Coverdale (2024) Putting Proportional Punishment into Perspective. Criminal Law and Philosophy.UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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In today’s episode, we delve into the complex and often misunderstood world of autocratic leadership. At first glance, it might seem like authoritarian rulers wield unchallenged power, free to govern without opposition. After all, the term "autocrat" stems from the Greek for "self-rule." But is that really how it works in practice?
A fantastic new book, 'Autocrats Can't Always Get What They Want', challenges this simplistic view. It reveals how modern autocratic leaders operate within a web of constraints that can shape, and sometimes even limit, their power. Intriguingly, these constraints aren’t always by design. Instead, they often emerge from circumstances that are outside the ruler's control—yet they still influence the way states function under authoritarian rule.
To unpack these fascinating insights, I’m joined by two of the book’s authors:
Dr Samer Anabtawi, Lecturer in Comparative Politics at UCL’s Department of Political Science, brings his expertise in comparative governance to the discussion.Professor Nathan Brown, a leading scholar of political science and international affairs from George Washington University, offers a global perspective on the nuanced realities of authoritarian regimes.Together, we explore a thought-provoking conversation that examines the mechanisms of modern authoritarianism and its implications for politics worldwide.
UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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As Donald Trump prepares for his second presidential inauguration on 20 January, speculation is rife about the policies he will pursue. Yet, just as crucial as his agenda are the powers of the office itself. What resources will he command? What constraints will shape his decisions?
To explore these questions, we turn to one of the foremost experts on the US presidency, Andrew Rudalevige, the Thomas Brackett Reed Professor of Government at Bowdoin College and Honorary Professor at UCL’s Centre on US Politics.
Andy is the author and editor of eight books on the American presidency, including By Executive Order: Bureaucratic Management and the Limits of Presidential Power (Princeton University Press, 2021). Drawing on decades of research, Andy reveals how the dynamics of power within the executive branch are far more nuanced than the actions of the president alone might suggest.
Mentioned in this episode:
By Executive Order: Bureaucratic Management and the Limits of Presidential Power, by Andrew RudalevigeOther writings by Andrew can be found on his Bowdoin College staff profile pageUCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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We’re familiar with the idea that history shapes contemporary politics, but what about the reverse? How do today’s political dynamics influence the way we remember the past?
In this episode, we explore a compelling study that examines this question in the context of Ukraine—a country caught between conflicting historical narratives from Russia and the West.
Since Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the nation has endured not only a devastating war but also an intense battle over history, identity, and legitimacy. Yet, these struggles are deeply rooted in Ukraine’s complex past.
The study we discuss was conducted in 2019, offering a snapshot from before the war. It investigates how Ukrainians recall their families’ experiences of victimisation during the Second World War and whether these memories are shaped by their present-day political beliefs.
Joining us to discuss these findings is Kristin Bakke, Professor of Political Science and International Relations at UCL and co-author of the study.
Mentioned in this episode:
Bakke, K. M., Rickard, K., O’Loughlin, J., & Toal, G. (2024). Politicizing Memory: Evidence from Ukraine. Problems of Post-Communism, 1–20. The study in The Conversation.UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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Social media plays a significant role in shaping political debates and, some argue, even influencing election outcomes. Politicians increasingly use platforms like X (formerly Twitter) to communicate directly with the public and run their campaigns. However, this unfiltered communication can sometimes spread misinformation or undermine democratic values.
A prime example is incoming US President Donald Trump, who was famously banned from Twitter for glorifying violence but has since returned to X with Elon Musk at the helm. This raises critical questions:
How should social media companies handle inflammatory or false claims from politicians?Can they continue to claim they are mere platforms, not publishers, despite the profound impact they have?And, if they challenge politicians' statements, do they risk overstepping their role in a democratic society?To explore these issues, we’re joined by Jeff Howard, a professor in this department and the Director of the Digital Speech Lab. Jeff co-authored a recent paper that dives deep into the responsibilities of social media companies when it comes to regulating political speech.
Mentioned in this episode:
Fisher, S., Kira, B., Arabaghatta Basavaraj, K., & Howard, J. (2024). Should Politicians Be Exempt from Fact-Checking?Journal of Online Trust and Safety.UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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One week after the US elections, Donald Trump has claimed victory, securing the presidency, the Senate, and almost certainly – though not yet confirmed – the House of Representatives as well. This sweeping win over Kamala Harris and the Democratic Party has ignited widespread discussion: what went wrong for the Democrats, and what lies ahead for both parties?
In this episode, we examine these key questions with our expert guests, exploring what this election outcome could mean for US policy on critical issues, including climate change, trade, democracy, and America’s relations with Ukraine, the Middle East, and China. With so much at stake, there’s already intense debate about the direction the country – and indeed, the world – may take in the coming years.
To shed light on these issues we are joined by:
Dr Thomas Gift, Associate Professor of Political Science and Director of the UCL Centre on US Politics (CUSP).Dr Julie Norman, Associate Professor in Politics and International Relations and CUSP’s Foreign Policy Lead.Both Dr Gift and Dr Norman bring deep expertise in US politics and policy, offering insights into where things stand, what to expect from the new administration, and the potential global implications. Together, they help to unpack the complexities of these developments and consider what the future might hold.
UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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In recent years, policing in England and Wales has appeared to be trapped in a cycle of crisis. From high-profile scandals to criticisms of operational standards, concerns about the police’s role and conduct have intensified. Perhaps most shockingly, a serving police officer was convicted of the murder of Sarah Everard, a tragedy that underscored the urgent need for accountability within the force.
A subsequent review by Baroness Louise Casey highlighted deep-seated issues within the Metropolitan Police Service, pointing to "institutional racism, sexism, and homophobia" within the organization. Meanwhile, there’s a growing perception that the police have deprioritized certain types of crime, like shoplifting. Political figures, too, have weighed in, accusing the police of double standards in their approach to protests and civil unrest.
All of this has contributed to a significant decline in public trust. So, what exactly are the root issues? What realistic solutions could address these complex problems? And how might the current political climate impact the feasibility of any reforms?
To explore these pressing questions, we are joined by three experts in crime and policing:
Ben Bradford – Professor of Global City Policing in the Department of Security and Crime Science at University College LondonJonathan Jackson – Professor of Research Methodology in the Department of Methodology at the London School of EconomicsEmmeline Taylor – Professor of Criminology in the School of Policy and Global Affairs at City, University of LondonTogether, Ben, Jon, and Emmeline have edited a new special issue of The Political Quarterly titled Policing the Permacrisis, which dives into these challenges and potential solutions. Regular listeners might recall that The Political Quarterly shares our goal of making cutting-edge political and policy research accessible to a broad audience beyond academia. This episode marks the second installment in our occasional series where we discuss insightful work published in the journal.
Mentioned in this episode:
Policing the Permacrisis, in The Political QuarterlyUCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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There have been longstanding calls for reparations to address the profound injustices of colonialism and compensate for the vast extraction of resources from colonized nations. However, with few recent exceptions, these demands for reparations have largely been ignored by the former colonial powers. So, what comes next?
Over the past two decades, renewed interest in colonial reparations has emerged within political theory and philosophy, with a focus on assigning responsibility for redress. Yet, relatively little attention has been given to how redress might be achieved in the face of persistent colonial amnesia and apologia. In this episode Dr. Shuk Ying Chan, Assistant Professor in Political Theory at UCL Political Science, proposes a solution: expropriation (the unilateral public takeover of foreign assets) as a justified response to these overdue reparations.
In her argument, she shifts the focus from simply determining responsibility for reparative justice to exploring what victims of past injustices, or their descendants, are justified in doing to claim what they are owed. She also addresses the unique challenges of pursuing such political resistance at the global level.
Mentioned in this episode:
Chan, S.Y. (20024) Expropriation as Reparation. American Journal of Political Science.UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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The state of public services is a pressing issue both in the UK and globally. News headlines are frequently dominated by stories of chronic failures and acute crises. In response, politicians often propose solutions involving more targets, tighter rules, and increased oversight. When confronted with challenges, their instinct is often to exert more control.
A new book challenges this approach, suggesting that such responses may (at least in some cases) be counterproductive. It argues that bureaucrats can often perform at their best when they are trusted with greater autonomy, encouraged to develop and apply their own expertise, and supported in collaborating with colleagues toward a shared mission. Despite this, the book acknowledges that managing for empowerment comes with significant challenges.
The book, Mission Driven Bureaucrats, is written by Dr. Dan Honig, Associate Professor of Public Policy in the UCL Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy, who joins us on the podcast today.
Mentioned in this episode:
Mission Driven Bureaucrats. Empowering People To Help Government Do Better, by Dan honigUCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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In a turbulent political summer, few surprises were greater than that caused by French president Emmanuel Macron’s decision in June to call early parliamentary elections. Macron’s party had just been trounced in the European Parliament elections; and victory for the far right seemed likely. In the end, thanks to some last minute deals, Marine Le Pen’s National Rally did not win. Rather, it was an alliance of the left that secured most seats in the National Assembly.
France’s Socialist Party was regularly in power from the early 1980s till the mid 2010s. But it collapsed spectacularly in the elections of 2017, and its very survival today seems in doubt. So what has been going on? And have the recent elections brought any signs of revival?
Joining us to explore these questions is Philippe Marlière, Professor of French and European Politics in the UCL European and International Social and Political Studies department.
This episode of UCL Uncovering Politics is the first in an occasional series of episodes based on pieces in Political Quarterly.
Marlière, P. (2024), French Social Democracy in Turmoil. The Political Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.13442
Mentioned in this episode:UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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In this episode, host Dr Emily McTernan is joined by Professor Cathy Elliot from UCL’s Department of Political Science to explore the politics of hope in the face of the climate crisis and the role of outdoor learning in cultivating that hope. Amidst growing climate anxiety, especially among younger generations, Prof. Elliot offers a hopeful perspective on how educators can inspire action without falling into despair.
This episode delves into the emotional landscape of politics and education, challenging the assumption that critical thinking and emotional engagement are at odds. They discuss the nature of hope, its importance in driving social and political change, and the emotional balance between hope and anger. They also explore the benefits of outdoor learning in higher education, where students engage with nature and develop a more profound sense of purpose and agency in addressing environmental issues. Prof. Elliot shares insights from her own outdoor teaching practices and provides tips for incorporating nature into the classroom to foster hope and resilience in students.
Mentioned in this episode:
Cathy Elliott, 'Chapter 6: Hope in the Garden: Outdoor learning as politics', in Outdoor Learning in Higher Education. Educating Beyond the Seminar Room. Edited By Wendy Garnham, Paolo OprandiUCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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Age appears to structure voting patterns in democracies around the world more today than ever before. One poll conducted before the UK’s recent general election found that just 4% of 18-24 year olds intend to vote Conservative, compared to 33% of those aged 65 or older. Big age divides are evident on the European continent as well, though not always exhibiting such a clear left–right pattern, with the far-right Alternative for Germany and the National Rally in France gaining noteworthy support from the young.
So what explains such divisions between the old and the young when it comes to voting? To what extent are these divisions underpinned by differences in voters’ ideological preferences? And how have these differences changed over time?
A new article by Tom O’Grady, Associate Professor in Political Science here at the UCL Political Science, explores exactly these questions.
Tom O'Grady. 'Is ideological polarisation by age group growing in Europe?' European Journal of Political Research.
Mentioned in this episode:UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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The late great sociologist and political scientist Charles Tilly said that ‘war made the state and the state made war’. Fighting and winning wars was, he argued, a crucial part of the story of how modern states built their bureaucratic capacity and their ability to do all the things that we want states to do.
But this so-called ‘bellicist’ account of the origins of state capacity – seeing the modern state as rooted in war – does not go unchallenged. In particular, some critics see it as unduly Euro-centric and that it just doesn't work outside of Europe.
We are joined by Dr Luis Schenoni, who has just been promoted to Associate Professor in International Relations here at the UCL Department of Political Science and who is also Director of our Security Studies Programme. In his new book, due out in July this year, Luis challenges that alternative perspective. He argues that, even in Latin America, the bellicist theory – if properly understood – does a remarkably good job in explaining outcomes.
Mentioned in this episode:
Luis Schenoni. Bringing War Back In. Victory, Defeat, and the State in Nineteenth-Century Latin America.UCL’s Department of Political Science and School of Public Policy offers a uniquely stimulating environment for the study of all fields of politics, including international relations, political theory, human rights, public policy-making and administration. The Department is recognised for its world-class research and policy impact, ranking among the top departments in the UK on both the 2021 Research Excellence Framework and the latest Guardian rankings.
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