Avsnitt
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This is the weekly column
Some facts and trivia to lighten your mood as we prepare for the horrors of “fall back” when the government gives back the imaginary hour it stole from us on the second Sunday in March.
• Do heavier glass bottles indicate higher quality wine?
Glass weight does not affect wine quality. But there has long been a marketing illusion that better wines come in heavier bottles, and winemakers have tended to put their premier efforts in heavier bottles. But so have lesser wines been put into heavy bottles so sellers can charge more. Happily, there is a mounting movement to reduce bottle weight, which cuts down on CO2 emissions and shipping and other costs.
Symington Family Estates recently switched to lighter bottles for its Cockburn’s Port line. Their new 750 ml bottle weighs 450g down from 585g. Other wineries, especially for wines not made for aging, have shifted to cans and “juice boxes” for even greater savings.
• Will the LED lights in my wine cellar cause light strike in my wine?
UV light and heat are enemies of wine, especially in long-term storage. Traditional lights give off UV and heat. Good news is LED lights give off minimal heat and almost no UV radiation.
• What do the fancy names for bubbles in Champagne mean?
“Mousse” generally refers to the overall fizziness, also the frothy head at the top of the glass. “Perlage” is French for a string of pearls and refers to the column of bubbles rising in the glass. “Bead” basically means the same as perlage.
• What are the most planted wine grapes in the world?
This answer changes and reporting is not uniform, but best answer in 2024 is cabernet sauvignon is the most planted red and chardonnay is the most planted white.
• How do you open a bottle with a wax seal?
Ignore the wax seal. Plunge the corkscrew through the wax and pull. When the cork is pulled, the wax will fall away. Just before you fully remove the cork, you can clean up any wax debris if needed.
• What does the wine descriptor “racy” mean?
Racy is more a style, not a descriptor of quality, smell, or taste. It basically means a wine with vibrant, fresh acidity. While it most often is associated with white wine, red wines can be racy, too. Racy is a positive comment and indicates the wine will “cleanse the palate” and work well with food.
Last round
A friend asked me how much I spend on a bottle of wine?
I said: “About 45 minutes, longer with a meal.” Wine time.
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This is the weekly column
Halloween is next week, but if you are giving wine advice it’s best to give your audience some time to act on it.
First, I know of no decent pairing of wine with treacly sweet trick-or-treat candy. With somewhat less sugary candy, you can go with light, sweet wines. Wine must be at least as sweet as the candy.
If the treat is dark chocolate, you have real options. Dark chocolate typically contains 50-90% cocoa solids. The higher the percentage of cocoa, the better to pair with wine. Vintage or ruby port, sherry, and marsala are classic fortified wine pairings. Non-fortified pairing wines include zinfandel, cabernet sauvignon, merlot, and New World pinot noir.
If you are not part of the child extortionists plot, you can always enjoy the frivolity of an adult costume party and real wine pairings. Charcuterie boards work well with almost the entire panoply of wine. If you are enjoying a full regular meal, the usual food-wine pairings apply.
When you get to dessert, dark chocolate is in play. With pumpkin pie there are several choices:
• Mascatel sherry. Its honey, caramel, and raisin notes nicely pair with the pie.
• California chardonnay. A full-bodied chard with plenty of oak, butter, and vanilla flavors will work especially nicely with pie crust.
• Tawny port. Nutty and dried fruit flavors complement the pie.
• Oloroso sherry. Sweet, nutty flavors match with autumnal flavors of the pie.
• Late harvest gewürztraminer. Nutmeg, vanilla, and cinnamon flavors in this sweet wine complement spices in pumpkin pie.
• Riesling ice wine. Sweetness and acidity work with the pie’s rich, creamy textures.
As with candy, the key is the wine must be at least as sweet as the pie. In fact, that is a good rule of thumb for all wine and food pairings.
Now you are set for the last day of October ordeal or fun fest, however you roll. Answer the doorbell, pay off the kiddos demanding tribute, practice moderation, wake up the next morning to prepare for the next holiday.
Tasting notes
• Cockburn’s No. 1 Special Reserve Porto NV: Delicious, approachable. The world’s most popular special reserve premium port. $18-20 Link to my review
• Lustau East India Solera Sherry: Fascinating interplay of tangy, salty notes of oloroso grapes (80% of blend), sweetness of pedro ximénez grapes. $22-28 Link to my review
Last round
This Halloween I decided to go as a harp. At the party, a gentleman asked, “what are you supposed to be?”
“A harp,” I replied.
“No, no,” he protested. “You’re too small to be a harp.”
“So,” I asked, “are you calling me a lyre?”
Wine time.
Email: [email protected]
Newsletter: gusclemens.substack.com
Website: Gus Clemens on Wine website
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Long form wine stories on Vocal: Gus Clemens on Vocal
Links worth exploring
Diary of a Serial Hostess Ins and outs of entertaining; witty anecdotes of life in the stylish lane.
As We Eat Multi-platform storytelling explores how food connects, defines, inspires.
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Saknas det avsnitt?
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This is the weekly column
October begins the 17th year of this wine column. Reflections.
• Quality wine is made by grape farmers in a vineyard, not by lab coats in a winery. When this column started, I could enjoy mass production wines manipulated by oak and tartaric acid and Mega Red. As years and tasting passed, my palate grew to more appreciate wines truer to place and variety. Supermarket mass production wines have their place, but as your wine odyssey unfolds their role diminishes.
• Wine is more complex and interesting than you can grasp in a lifetime. Anyone who claims to know everything—or almost everything—about wine just proved they do not. Wine is an infinite Fabergé egg. Opening each shell presents you with a more beautiful and fascinating layer.
• Texas wines would get there. My first publisher—of a Texas newspaper—specifically told me to avoid writing about Texas wines. They were hard for readers to buy. Winemakers struggled to find grapes and cellar practices that worked in Texas. No more. Texas wines have made enormous strides. They compete on quality and are beginning to compete on distribution. They tend to be somewhat overpriced, but sell out because of the proud loyalty of Texans. If Texans will buy $18 wine for $25 dollars, Texans will sell it to them. Then use profits to elevate their wine to be worth $25.
• If you enjoy a wine, it is good wine for you. Ignore my and others opinion of it. I stated that in the first column. I believe it more today.
• You never run out of things to write about. Early on, people worried I would exhaust my subject. Not close to the truth. I have written more than 800 columns, all posted on my website. Not a single repeat. No expectation whatsoever I will run out of material.
• Supercilious tasting notes and wine scores are ridiculous. Sixteen years ago, I bet people wanted to know about wine. How it is made. The people who make it. The places it is made. What the jargon meant. With tens of thousands of readers around the world, I remain all-in on that bet. If you come to me for a pithy sentence and some score on a 100-point scale, you came to the wrong place.
My writing career has taken me many places. Sports editor of a major newspaper. Author or participant in some 20 books. A successful advertising agency owner. This column remains a beloved highlight in that career, and I deeply appreciate your being part the journey.
Last round
What washes up on tiny beaches? Microwaves. Wine time.
Email: [email protected]
Newsletter: gusclemens.substack.com
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Long form wine stories on Vocal: Gus Clemens on Vocal
Links worth exploring
Diary of a Serial Hostess Ins and outs of entertaining; witty anecdotes of life in the stylish lane.
As We Eat Multi-platform storytelling explores how food connects, defines, inspires.
Balanced Diet Original recipes, curated links about food systems, recipe reviews.
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This is the weekly column
Scare headlines: “Drinking any alcohol is a cancer risk.” Well, okay, the question is how much of a risk?
In this discussion, remember the adage popularized by Mark Twain: “Three types of lies. Lies. Damn lies. And statistics.” Stories about cancer risk with alcohol often can be taken with a grain of salt.
No question alcohol can put you at a greater risk of cancer. But how much greater risk? That is where the statistical hanky-panky emerges. A popular reference comes from the Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction’s 2023 Guidance on Alcohol and Health: Final Report. A bottom line: limit consumption to no more than two alcoholic drinks a week.
The devilish detail is the comparison of no-alcohol risk and the risk of some alcohol—usually two glasses of wine a day. Here are the findings:
• The breast cancer risk for no-alcohol females is 17.3 of 100,000 deaths (1.73%). Two-a-day drinkers increase their risk to 22 of 100,000 deaths (2.2%).
• The colorectal cancer risk for no-alcohol people is 9.2 of 100,000 deaths (.92%). Two-a-day drinkers is 11.1 of 100,000 (1.1%).
• The liver cancer risk for no-alcohol people is 3.2 of 100,000 deaths (.32%). Two-a-day drinkers is 3.6 of 100,000 deaths (.36%).
• The oesophagus cancer risk for no-alcohol people is 1.5 of 100,000 deaths (.15%). Two-a-day drinkers is 2.1 of 100,000 deaths (.21%).
The statistical trick is to state increased risk in relative terms, not absolute terms. Breast cancer risk is 17.3 of 100,000 among non-drinkers and 22 of 100,000 for drinkers. The increase in drinkers is 27% measured in relative terms—22 is 27% more than 17.3. In absolute terms, the increase is .47% (17.3 plus .47 equals 22). If a woman drinks two glasses of wine a day, she increases breast cancer risk by less than one-half a percent.
That is the reason the anti-alcohol zealots harp on relative and not absolute numbers. One is alarming but misleading. Two-a-day female wine drinkers do not increase their death rate by 27%. They increase their cancer chances from 17.3 per 100,000 to 22 per 100,000.
No one argues that excessive alcohol does not pose significant health risks. But misleading the public about the risks of moderate consumption is not the way to affect this issue. Go ahead and have that glass of wine with your meal tonight. It is very unlikely to kill you. And the bonhomie you enjoy with that meal has its own benefit of increasing joy and enriching your life, which studies show helps prolong life.
Last round
What do elves use to make sandwiches? Shortbread. Wine time.
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Newsletter: gusclemens.substack.com
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Links worth exploring
Diary of a Serial Hostess Ins and outs of entertaining; witty anecdotes of life in the stylish lane.
As We Eat Multi-platform storytelling explores how food connects, defines, inspires.
Balanced Diet Original recipes, curated links about food systems, recipe reviews.
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This is the weekly column
If you go into almost any wine shop, liquor store, or supermarket wine section in the United States—and now in most places in the world—you will find wine bottles arranged and named by the variety of grape used to make the wine.
When the bottle contains a predominant percentage of a single grape variety (generally 75% in the U.S., 85% in Europe) it can be labeled as a varietal wine. It has not always been that way, and you have an iconic American wine family to thank for the change.
The classic naming convention came from Old World wine countries—France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and other European countries. The name came from the appellation—Bordeaux, Burgundy, Rioja, Priorat, Chianti, Barolo.
Sophisticated wine drinkers understood designations. Bordeaux—blend of cabernet sauvignon, merlot and a few other grapes. Burgundy—pinot noir. Rioja—tempranillo. Priorat—garnacha and carignan. Chianti—sangiovese. Barolo—nebbiolo.
When California wines stunned the world at the Judgment of Paris in 1976 the contestant wines were identified as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, but that was not the norm. Back then, many American wines were labeled with names like “Claret”—cabernet sauvignon, maybe. “Burgundy”—pinot noir, maybe. “Hearty Burgundy”—not pinot noir, but a blend of zinfandel, petite sirah, and carignan. “Champagne”—any sparkling wine made any way, to the fury of winemakers in the Champagne region of France. The Mondavi family, led by Robert, realized most Americans were just getting into wine and needed something simpler. When Robert left the family’s Charles Krug operation to found his own winery in 1966, he began labeling his wine by the variety used. For the most part. When it came to sauvignon blanc, then considered déclassé, not the hot white it is today, Mondavi blinked and appropriated its French name “Pouilly-Fumé” to create “Fumé Blanc,” a blend of mostly sauv blanc with a splash of sémillon—but with enough sauv blanc to be labeled as a varietal. Today, it is among the winery’s best sellers.
The American naming revolution largely won the day. Old World wineries still use their historical names, but likely you can read the varietal or variety-blend somewhere on the label. Almost every New World wine will carry the varietal or variety-blend information.
The revolution made figuring out wine easier for people to figure out. And is an important reason for wine’s unprecedented increase in popularity the past half century. Thanks, Bob.
Last round
My English teacher looked at me and said: “Name two pronouns.” I said: “Who, me?” Wine time.
Email: [email protected]
Newsletter: gusclemens.substack.com
Website: Gus Clemens on Wine website
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Long form wine stories on Vocal: Gus Clemens on Vocal
Links worth exploring
Diary of a Serial Hostess Ins and outs of entertaining; witty anecdotes of life in the stylish lane.
As We Eat Multi-platform storytelling explores how food connects, defines, inspires.
Balanced Diet Original recipes, curated links about food systems, recipe reviews.
This is a public episode. If you’d like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit gusclemens.substack.com/subscribe -
This is the weekly column
Winemakers: To oak or not to oak, that is the question. Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, or to take up oak to craft your wine to shake the spheres of ordinary.
Oak and wine were made for each other. The wood and how it is treated introduces flavors compounds and textures. Oak barrels allow slow oxygenation, which engenders complexity and depth. Malolactic fermentation in oak converts tart malic acid into softer lactic acid, creating a creamier, buttery texture. The winemaker must decide if oak is in the wine’s future. For some whites, the answer is no. For reds, usually yes.
Next decision—which oak to use. There are some 600 species of oak trees. They are divided into two main groups: red oaks and white oaks. In North America alone there are about 90 native species.
American white oak (Quercus alba) has wide grain and high levels of lactones, delivering flavors of vanilla, coconut, marshmallow, volume, creaminess, and sweetness. It usually receives a medium toast (flame treatment inside the barrel). It often is used for bold wines—cabernet sauvignon and petite sirah—because its robust flavors and higher oxygen ingress complement such wines.
European white oak (Quercus petraea) has finer grains. It has a more subtle influence on wine than American oak and imparts elegant flavors of vanilla and spice, and thus is preferred for lighter wines—pinot noir and chardonnay. The tight grains also mean a more measured integration of flavors, often preferred for premium wines. At medium toast, French oak imparts notes of coffee, chocolate, leather, and mushrooms. Wine must spend more time in French oak than American oak to attain these flavors.
Eastern European oak, particularly from Slovakia, Hungry, and Romania, are similar to French oak. They can be more subtle than French oak and provide more delicate flavors.
Bourbon barrels are another category, pioneered in the 20th century by Chilean mega-maker Concho y Toro with its American label, 1000 Stories. It involves using American oak, blackened and heavily charred to make bourbon and whiskey in first use. In second use with wine, the barrels deliver caramel, burnt sugar, dried herbs, coffee, and vanilla. Wine finished in bourbon barrels are only part of a blend—around five percent—but add smoothness and another layer of flavors with hint of its bourbon back story. They also are a booming category in wine because they are smooth and delicious. Wood you not be interested in trying this category?
Last round
I only know 25 letters in the alphabet. I don’t know Y. Wine time.
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Newsletter: gusclemens.substack.com
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Long form wine stories on Vocal: Gus Clemens on Vocal
Links worth exploring
Diary of a Serial Hostess Ins and outs of entertaining; witty anecdotes of life in the stylish lane.
As We Eat Multi-platform storytelling explores how food connects, defines, inspires.
Balanced Diet Original recipes, curated links about food systems, recipe reviews.
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This is the weekly column
What makes a great wine? There is a hard and fast answer: “great wine comes from great vineyards.”
What makes a great vineyard?
• Terroir. This is big net answer because the French term includes soil composition, climate, topography, even the culture and experience of the vineyard-winery workers.
• Soil. Different grape varieties thrive in different types of soil. Merlot is particularly suited for clay soil that holds water. Cabernet sauvignon prefers gravelly soil that drains well. Chardonnay enjoys limestone soil. Sauvignon blanc’s ideal is sandy loam. The mineral content of the soil also can enhance character and complexity.
• Climate. Well, of course. In particular, diurnal shift—the change in temperature from day to night—is a precious quality. Hot day engenders ripeness and tasty fruit, while cool nights develop balancing acidity.
• Topography. In cool climates in the Northern Hemisphere south-facing slopes maximize heat and sun exposure. In warm climates, east, north, or northeast facing slopes help avoid overheating. Water drainage, slope, and elevation all can play a part.
• Vineyard management. When nature gives you advantages, it is up to you to make the most of them. That includes decisions on farming methods. What to plant and how to plant. Pruning and canopy management are vital, a task that demands experienced vineyard workers.
Where do these elements exist? The glory of wine, engendered by wine grape diversity, is there are places all over the world where you can make good wine. From the drenching rains of Minho province in Portugal to vineyards in the Atacama Desert in Chile—the driest place on earth—to the cold climes of the Niagara Peninsula and Okanagan Valley in Canada, clever humans have figured out what grape variety, vineyard configuration, and management decisions work in their special place in creation.
After the interplay of these elements in the vineyard, the job of making great wine then falls to the artistry of winemakers. There is an almost universal agreement among great winemakers: their job is to largely stay out of the way and allow the vineyard to express itself. After all, “great wine comes from great vineyards.”
Tasting notes
• Serego Alighieri Possessioni Garganega e Sauvignon del Veneto 2021: Fresh, fruit-forward blend of garganega (the main grape of Soave) and sauvignon blanc. $20 Link to my review
• DeLille Cellars Métier Cabernet Sauvignon, Columbia Valley 2021: Bold but approachable. Saturated with dark fruit flavors. $23-30 Link to my review
• Texas Hills Vineyard Sangiovese, Texas High Plains, Newsom Vineyards 2015: Delicious Texas interpretation of the great red grape of Tuscany. Almost decadent ripeness. $25 Link to my review
Last round
Thank you for explaining the meaning of “many.” It means a lot to me. Wine time.
Email: [email protected]
Newsletter: gusclemens.substack.com
Website: Gus Clemens on Wine website
Facebook: facebook.com/GusClemensOnWine/posts/
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Long form wine stories on Vocal: Gus Clemens on Vocal
Links worth exploring
Diary of a Serial Hostess Ins and outs of entertaining; witty anecdotes of life in the stylish lane.
As We Eat Multi-platform storytelling explores how food connects, defines, inspires.
Balanced Diet Original recipes, curated links about food systems, recipe reviews.
This is a public episode. If you’d like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit gusclemens.substack.com/subscribe -
This is the weekly column
Wine is your friend, especially when sipped with friends during a convivial meal. You are obliged to protect it from its enemies.
Classic factors that negatively impact wine quality:
• Oxygen. Exposure to oxygen can be wine’s valued friend or its mortal enemy. The key is moderation. Readers know of my advocacy of decanting—exposing wine from a freshly opened bottle to air to soften tannins, blow off odors, integrate elements. That exposure is relatively brief, measured in minutes or small number of hours. It is a common technique for red wines that also can improve some whites.
But too much oxygen is the most significant threat to wine. Too much during the winemaking process can darken white wines to a brownish hue and rob red wines of vibrant color, shifting them into orange or russet shades. Too much oxygen in opened wine will flatten its flavors and aromas. Eventually it will turn the wine into vinegar.
• Light. Ultraviolet light, both from the sun and artificial lighting, degrades wine’s flavors and aromas. That is why many wines come in dark bottles and should be stored in a dark environment.
• Heat. Higher temperatures accelerate aging and eventually spoil the wine. One telltale sign of excessive heat exposure is a cork that has lifted, also leakage of wine out of the bottle. It is best to store wine between 45 and 65 degrees F, with 55 degrees the ideal.
• Vibrations. Constant movement disturbs sediment and messes with the aging process. This especially is important for wine put down for aging.
• Humidity. Some humidity—70% is ideal—helps keep corks from drying out. Too much humidity will not affect the wine, but can lead to mold growth that damages labels.
These are things to think about, but not to obsess over. Wine is a tough hombre. Even when abused by oxygen, light, heat, vibrations, and humidity, it usually remains drinkable. It just will not deliver the same tasty pleasure you get when you treat it right.
Tasting notes
• Chateau Ste. Michelle Dry Riesling, Columbia Valley 2021: Incredibly delicious. Ste. Michelle has delivered this amazing value, wonderful riesling for years. $10-14 Link to my review
• Vallformosa Mistinguett Brut Rosé NV: Simple, safe, tasty sparkling that will offend almost no drinker or any pocketbook. $14 Link to my review
• Trefethen Family Vineyards Estate Grown Chardonnay, Oak Knoll District, Napa Valley 2021: Mellow, well balanced, classic Napa chard, well-done oak and malo. $28-33 Link to my review
• Compris Vineyard Midnight Journey Syrah, Chehalem Mountains AVA 2021: Savory, smooth delight scores all points you look for in a syrah. $50 Link to my review
Last round
What kind of exercise do lazy people do? Diddly-squats. Wine time.
Email: [email protected]
Newsletter: gusclemens.substack.com
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Long form wine stories on Vocal: Gus Clemens on Vocal
Links worth exploring
Diary of a Serial Hostess Ins and outs of entertaining; witty anecdotes of life in the stylish lane.
As We Eat Multi-platform storytelling explores how food connects, defines, inspires.
Balanced Diet Original recipes, curated links about food systems, recipe reviews.
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This is the weekly column
Wine snobbery is a detestable trait. But you can be a “good” wine snob. Here’s how.
• Respect the preferences of others. Never be condescending or judgmental. Basically, don’t be a jerk. Good advice for many situations.
• Be a life-long wine learner. Wine knowledge is vast and ever-evolving. Anyone who claims to know everything about wine just proved they do not. That applies to you and your fellow wine drinkers.
• Enjoy wine. Wine is a palate pleasure, not a vehicle to flaunt status or a way to show off. Geez, please.
• Accept and appreciate the preferences of others. If you want to be a “good” wine snob, work on “tasting through someone else’s mouth.” Who knows, you may have an epiphanic moment and discover a whole new lane of delectation—maybe you will find something you like that you did not expect to like.
• If someone asks for wine advice, gently guide rather than dictate. Sublimate the tyranny of your proclivities. Instead, facilitate helping others find their own wine way.
• Celebrate diversity. There are thousands of wines made thousands of ways. That is wine’s wonder and glory. It is not your way or the highway. If it is your way or the highway, then don’t let the door hit your butt on the way out to travel that lonely road.
• Explore new horizons. When you celebrate diversity, you may stumble upon pleasures you never expected. That is the wonder of wine.
• Patience is a virtue in almost all things, including wine. Allow others to learn about wine at their own pace, and allow yourself to do the same.
This column strives to entertain and inform you about wine. Sixteen years ago, I wrote in my first column: “If a wine tastes good to you, then it’s good no matter how a wine expert responds.” I have stayed true to that proposition, and suggest you do the same. Thank each of you for being part of the journey.
Tasting notes
• J. Lohr Los Osos Merlot, Paso Robles 2021: Soft, creamy, plush mouthfeel, gains subtlety with exposure to air. Not complex, just a delicious, easy drinker. $12-17 Link to my review
• San Simeon Sauvignon Blanc Paso Robles 2023: Bright, refreshing, good acidity, vivid fruit—all you want from a sauv blanc from long-time quality maker. $18-20 Link to my review
• Invivo X SJP Sarah Jessica Parker Pinot Noir, Marlborough, New Zealand 2022: Exciting, edgy NZ pinot. Real collaboration between quality maker and celebrity. Good texture and complexity. $19-27 Link to my review
Last round
What do you call Dracula when he has hay fever? The Pollen Count. Wine time.
Email: [email protected]
Newsletter: gusclemens.substack.com
Website: Gus Clemens on Wine website
Facebook: facebook.com/GusClemensOnWine/posts/
Twitter (X): @gusclemens
Long form wine stories on Vocal: Gus Clemens on Vocal
Links worth exploring
Diary of a Serial Hostess Ins and outs of entertaining; witty anecdotes of life in the stylish lane.
As We Eat Multi-platform storytelling explores how food connects, defines, inspires.
Balanced Diet Original recipes, curated links about food systems, recipe reviews.
This is a public episode. If you’d like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit gusclemens.substack.com/subscribe -
This is the weekly column
Even if you only dip your big toe into wine wonkiness, you likely encounter the term “malolactic fermentation” or MLF. What is that?
Well, this being wine, it actually is not fermentation, which involves yeast. It is a conversion, which involves bacteria. The primary bacteria is Oenococcus oeni—try saying that three times in a row after a couple of glasses of wine (or even before). The process is a decarboxylation conversion—malic acid turns into lactic acid. What does that mean in words of less than five syllables?
Malolactic conversion reduces acidity and softens the taste of wine. It almost always is done with red wine. It usually is done with white wines where a rounder, creamier profile is wanted. Chardonnay is classic example, as are viognier, marsanne, roussane, and white Burgundy. On the other hand, MLF usually is prevented in sauvignon blanc, pinot grigio/pinot gris, riesling, vermentino, and other whites where acidity and floral aromas are prized.
Wineries encourage MLF by inoculation of bacteria and control of temperature (warmer is better), acidity (lower is better—above 3.3 pH), and avoiding sulfur dioxide. Wineries discourage MLF by keeping temperatures lower, keeping pH less than 3.3, adding sulfur dioxide, sterile filtration, and other methods.
If you enjoy a full-bodied, creamy, buttery, smooth chardonnay, you have MLF in an oak barrel to thank. If you prefer tangy fruit, great acidity, the powerful aromatics of sauvignon blanc or riesling, you have the prevention of MLF to thank.
Almost all red wines undergo MLF. Some beaujolais nouveau wines skip MLF. Italian amarone typically does not undergo MLF. Just about every other red has MLF as part of its making regimen.
Like their color, rosé wines fall in the middle. Classic Provence rosés usually avoid MLF. Darker rosés and rosés finished in oak are much more likely to have partial of full MLF.
Sparkling wine MLF depends on the maker. Krug and Bollinger use full MLF. Louis Roederer often blocks MLF. Cristal—Louis Roederer’s prestige pour—experiences partial MLF.
Malolactic fermentation—technically malolactic conversion—is an important winemaking tool. If you have read this far, you have more than dipped your toe into wine wonkiness.
Tasting notes
• Trefethen Family Vineyards Estate Grown Dry Riesling, Oak Knoll District, Napa Valley 2022: Sleek, crisp, delicate aromatics. $22-28 Link to my review
• Sealionne Wines Halcyon Chardonnay, Chehalem Mountains AVA, Willamette Valley 2022: Unique flavors through fermentation mix of stainless steel, oak, amphora. $45 Link to my review
• Three Sticks One Sky Vineyard Pinot Noir 2021: Superb, classic Sonoma pinot from highest vineyard in the AVA. Delicious fruit, depth, length, structure. $85 Link to my review
Last round
Double negatives are a big no-no. Wine time.
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Commercialization defines wine 8-21-2024
Wine is fermented grape juice, an agricultural product like green beans and corn. But that is not how we think about wine. Why?
We think of wine as a consequence of culture rather than agri-culture. Wine is treated like an aesthetic product, similar to the arts, with special terminology, in-depth discussion and analysis, reviews by experts.
But wine also is a commercial product. It has been for thousands of years, and the special dynamics of it being a commercial product shaped wine and how you think about wine. In 2021, the most recent complete statistics, the world made 34 billion bottles of wine with a market value of $53 billion. Wine is a commercial product.
Place—“terroir”—is a central belief in wine’s mythos. As far back as ancient Greece, elites believed wines from distant places were special. The simple folk drank locally produced fermented grape juice or beer. The rich and powerful drank wine. Commercial value was enhanced by the wine coming from a distant place.
Gironde Estuary. Photo: Chell Hill
That had a major impact on where “fine wine” came from. When you mention Bordeaux your first thought is about wine, not about an estuary. But the Gironde estuary is why great wine chateaus are located on Bordeaux’s left and right banks. The sea gave chateaus trade access to England and Northern Europe, where climate prevented wine production. When you can’t produce something in your back yard and must have it shipped to you, it takes on special value you are willing to pay for.
All the great wine regions of France, Italy, and Spain—the world’s largest wine producers—are located on rivers that facilitate transport and trade. The situation creates a self-reinforcing loop. The chateaus of Bordeaux make money exporting a luxury product, then use the generated wealth to improve their product and reinforce the sophisticated image of their product and create more demand for it.
Terroir is a real thing, but it is the product of winemakers using profits to experiment and learn about what works best on their piece of land. Commercial trade is the reason wineries were located where they are. Knowledge paid for by profits from commercial trade is the reason those places became the best places to make wine.
I believe wine can be a mystical artistic expression of soaring human endeavors and the good graces of God and nature. But we got there because someone made fermented grape juice worth buying and someone else was willing to pay for it.
Last round
The past—history. The future—mystery. Today—a gift. That is why we call it the present. Wine time.
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Did the extinction of dinosaurs play a part in the creation of wine? While it may sound far-fetched, according to an article in the prestigious, peer-reviewed scientific journal Nature Plants, there is scientific evidence to support the theory.
Researchers discovered fossil grape seeds in South America dating back 60 million years. Fossil grape seed evidence in India dates back 66 million years. The dinosaur extinction occurred 66 million years ago. Coincidence? Science indicates no.
The extinction marks the end of the Cretaceous Period. Approximately 75 percent of all plant and animal species were lost, including all non-avian dinosaurs. That transformed the entire world. With large animals not around to eat or knock down trees, forests reset themselves, becoming much more dense and layered. Trees grew taller, and there were many more of them.
Grape vines are tree climbers. Trees are their natural habitat. As trees grew up, grape vines were right there with them, climbing toward sunlight. Vineyard structures are simulated trees. The increase in birds and mammals also helped. Grape globes are designed to be eaten. Grape seeds are designed to survive digestion, then spread by animals that eat them.
Soft, grape globes, of course, did not fossilize. Seeds did. Although grape seeds are tiny, scientists identified particular shapes and other morphological features. CT scans identified internal structures that confirmed the grape seed identity.
While grape vines existed before the great extinction, the extinction created vast new, favorable conditions and ecological niches. The extinction did not cause the appearance of grape vines, it did favor their spread and diversification, as it did for all flowering plants.
The next time you sip wine or munch on a raisin or a table grape, pause to thank the asteroid that slammed into Earth 66 million years ago. That event may have killed dinosaurs, but it helped give us grape vines. And wine.
Tasting notes
• FIOL Prosecco Rosé Millesimato 2021: Fresh, fruity, elegant, fun. Blend of 85% glera and 15% pinot noir. Ideal for a Sunday brunch. $18 Link to my review
• Baron Philippe de Rothschild Mouton Cadet Blanc X Nathan 2023: Low acidity—for a sauv blanc—allows tasty fruit to shine. People not into sauv blanc will enjoy this effort. $16-19 Link to my review
• Etude Pinot Gris, Grace Benoist Ranch Vineyard, Carneros 2022: Bright, fresh, easy drinker; delivers depth, aromatic intensity. $23-28 Link to my review
• Rodney Strong Vineyards Russian River Valley Reserve Chardonnay 2021: Rich, premium pour. Skillfully touches all the bases of the oak and malo Russian River style; avoids cartoony excess. $46-50 Link to my review
Last round
Drinking wine usually is not the answer, but it does help you forget the question.
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August. For many, triple digit degree days. Time to beat the heat with chilled rosé.
Except, what exactly is rosé? Surprisingly, in the often rigid, rule-ridden world of wine, there is no consensus definition of what is a rosé.
Are not wines divided into red, white, rosé, and amber/orange? It might be nice, but they are not. Turns out, only white wine has a strict definition. At an event in London, renowned rosé specialist and Master of Wine Elizabeth Gabay stated: “I think we should get rid of the terms red, white, rosé and orange wine, because the gradations are not really there.”
When asked if the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV) should come up with hard and fast definitions, she replied: “Absolutely not. I love the blurry line.”
Samantha
There is a generally accepted, but rough, division. White wines are fermented with no or only briefest contact with grape skins. Juice is separated from grape skins before fermentation begins.
OIV also has a definition for white grapes when fermentation occurs during prolonged contact with skins, pulp, seeds, and stems. This is “amber” or “orange” wine, a reference to the wine’s color. There is some term turmoil about “orange” because the wine is not quite orange and it is not made with oranges, but there is agreement that so-named wines are made with a defined method.
When it comes to red wine and rosé, however, the OIV does not have a precise definition. The organization does provide methods for assessing wine colors using spectrophotometry. The OIV states it “has a general definition for wine, but no specific definition for wine colours, which can be described according to the grape varieties and production methods, or by colour determination via analytical methods.”
Specifically on rosé wines, the OIV comments: “For what concerns rosé wine, the main problem is a lack of a clear definition and therefore for many counties this category is included in red wine.”
While the definition may not be precise, there is no question rosé is on the rise. Globally, white wine represents half of all wine produced. Red wine represents 42% and rosé 8%. But, in 2021 (last year for complete numbers), red wine production decreased 25% from its peak in 2004, white wine increased 13% from its low in 2002, and rosé increased 25% from its low in 2001.
Rosé—you know it when you see it.
Last round
Why do scuba divers fall backwards off of the boat? Because if they fell forward, they’d still be in the boat. Wine time.
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Tasting science used to be so simple. Alas, no more.
Back in 1901, a German scientist opined various taste receptors were orderly segregated on your tongue in specific places. Sweet on your tip, salty on the sides, sour behind them, bitter in the back. Nice, neat, wrong.
Modern science—the flawed German study is from 1901—confirms the perception of taste is remarkably complex and not limited to your tongue. Judging flavors is deeply integrated into what is good for you to eat and what is not, so it should be no surprise that hundreds of thousands of years of tasting experience created a complex and extremely sophisticated human palate. If it had not, you and I would not be around to read about this.
Yes, it does start with the tongue. Sensors alert the brain when they encounter nutrients or toxins. Pleasure or poison is the first threshold. Horrible, you instinctively spit it out. But your response does not stop after that initial pass-fail taste test. When alerted, your gastrointestinal tract, liver, pancreas, fat cells, brain, muscle cells, and lungs also spring into action. Your tongue taste buds alert your body in the same way an airport system responds to an airplane coming in for a landing. Your tongue may be the control tower, but it only sets everything else into motion.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who won a Nobel Prize for his studies on digestion in 1904, showed lumps of meat placed directly into a hole in the dog’s stomach would not be digested unless he dusted the dog’s tongue with some dried meat powder to start things off. Dog food, wine. Who knew they would be connected?
I do not know of scientific studies to back me up, but I assert there is a connection between wine—essentially liquid fruit—and your body’s collective response to nourishment. Wine has complemented our food for at least 8,000 years, likely longer. When human beings find something that works, they tend to expand upon it.
Cheers.
Tasting notes
• Rainstorm Pinot Gris, Willamette Valley, Oregon 2022: Bright, fresh with good tartness, citrus. Delightful wine with the tartness and acidity to pair well with lighter fare. $16-18 Link to my review
• Ramōn Bilbao Verdejo, Rueda 2022: Crisp, fruity, refreshing. Bright, inviting, vibrant pleasure in the mouth. $18-23 Link to my review
• Becker Vineyards Prairie Cuvée, Texas High Plains 2019: Light, refreshing, full fruity flavor. Classic Rhône blend using Texas-grown grapes by substantial player in state’s ascendency in the wine world. $25 Link to my review
Last round
Commas are so very important. “Your dinner” (no comma) leaves you nourished. “You’re dinner” (comma) leaves you eaten. Wine time.
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Direct-to-consumer (DtC) wine shipping enjoys exponential growth. This is a great and welcome boon to wine makers, especially smaller ones who effectively are ignored by mega wholesalers.
But the trend rattles those same near-monopoly wholesalers—Southern Glazer’s and Republic National. And they are fighting back by lobbying to restrict DtC in state legislatures and making delivery more complicated.
Fear mongering about DtC leading to minors securing alcohol is a major meme. Claim: when DtC rules are relaxed, there is more underage drinking. They offer no proof of their claim because none exists. In fact, underage drinking is historically down in the past decade.
Common sense and experience tells you teenagers are not going to order wine online to be delivered days later. Why would anyone under 21 go to that trouble when all they need do is raid their parent’s stash, recruit a friend who is over 21 to buy, buy themselves at a compliant store or with a fake ID, or simply steal from the store? That is how it has worked from time out of memory.
That is not to say DtC providers should ignore underage drinking. Many times a week I receive DtC wines from wineries who want me to review their wine. I am in my mid-70s. Delivery people still ask to see an ID the first time they come, and have me sign for the delivery every time. That is reality. Ignore the bogus scare tactics of those who oppose DtC.
The core of the problem is the entrenched hangover from Prohibition: the three-tier system. The system divides the alcohol supply chain into producer, wholesaler, and retailer. The two middle-men, the wholesaler and the retailer, each get their cut of the action and raise the product price.
Smaller wineries are not noticed by the big dog wholesalers and must make do with wine club and on-premise winery sales. That hurts the boutique wineries and deprives you of quality, small production wine experiences. As DtC opportunities increase, it benefits wineries and consumers. It hurts big wholesalers and retailers, and they are using all their lobbying clout to thwart this trend.
You can easily surmise where my sympathies lie.
Tasting notes
• Grape Creek Vineyards Cuvée Blanc White Wine, Texas 2022: Excellent mouthfeel and rich, tasty fruit backed by jaunty acidity. Sterling example of why Texas wines must be taken seriously. $24-30 Link to my review
• Three Sticks One Sky Vineyard Pinot Noir 2021: Delicious fruit, depth, length, structure. $85 Link to my review
Last round
Question: “Which hand do you use when cutting your steak?”
Answer: “I don’t use my hand, I use a knife.” Wine time.
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A miracle is happening right now in vineyards throughout the northern hemisphere.
“Véraison” is the French term for the time when a wine vine’s tiny, tight green nubs morph into plump, tasty, colorful globes. Red grapes transition from green to red, purple, blue, or black. White grapes transition from green to translucent yellow, orange, or gold.
Olivier Lemoine
In addition to color changes grapes undergo other vital changes.
• Grapes soften, become juicier and more pliable.
• Grapes can double in size as they accumulate sugars and other nutrients.
• Glucose and fructose levels—sugars—increase, critical to the later production of alcohol.
• Malic acid decreases, making tartaric acid predominant, critical for flavor balance.
• Herbaceous—green—aromas and taste degrade, replaced by fruity aromas.
• The concentration and composition of phenolic compounds, especially tannins, change. Riper grapes with well-developed phenolics are smoother, more complex, and have a more pleasant mouthfeel.
• Vines shift from energy production through photosynthesis—leaf production—to energy consumption, concentrating energy to make ripe, sweet grapes.
• Véraison occurs in the northern hemisphere beginning in mid-to-late July, but grape variety, temperature, climate, and region influence the process. It may not begin until mid-August some places.
• Véraison may not occur simultaneously in a vineyard or even on a single vine. Vines that undergo véraison more evenly generally produce wines with greater complexity and depth.
• Véraison means harvest is 45 to 60 days away. Precise timing of the harvest is critical in the production of quality wine. That largely is under the control of humans. Véraison is the magical time that sets up the harvest. That is almost exclusively under the control of God and Mother Nature. The wine you enjoy is the product of this symbiotic relationship.
Tasting notes
• MGM Mondo del Vino Riva Leone Gavi DOCG 2021: Delicious dry, light wine with admirable crispness and delicious cortese fruit. $15-17 Link to my review
• Gigondas La Cave Le Dit De Saint Tronquet, Côtes du Rhône Villages Plan de Dieu 2022: Solid GSM from Rhône Villages cooperative in a special place—“God’s Plan” [Plan de Dieu]. $18 Link to my review
• Hahn Family Wines Appellation Series Chardonnay, Arroyo Seco 2021: Rich, full, round, clean; impressive example of oaked chardonnay, touches all the delicious, well-made chard bases. $22-25 Link to my review
• Texas Heritage Vineyard Viognier, Wildseed Farms Vineyard, Texas Hill Country 2022: Deep, delicious, robust, aromatic expression of Texas viognier. $21-28 Link to my review
• M. Chapoutier Crozes-Hermitage Petite Ruche Blanc 2021: Plump pleaser, rich, fruity, medium-plus body marsanne play. $27 Link to my review
Last round
Did you hear about the mathematician who was afraid of negative numbers? He would stop at nothing to avoid them. Wine time.
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As the Nat King Cole song goes, “Roll out those lazy, hazy days of summer.” But instead of soda and pretzels and beer, it is so much nicer to sip well-chilled rosé.
The rosé cliché is that it is only a summertime wine. Not remotely true, but rosé certainly is a lovely libation—both in taste and color—as we endure the trials Sol slings at us.
Rosé is light-bodied, fresh and fruity, moderate alcohol. Those are all good things for a scorching day thirst quencher. Rosé also pairs well with the lighter food we eat in summer.
Rosés come in many colors. Some sippers immediately think of the very pale rosés from Côtes de Provence, but color is an indication of style, not quality. Rosés from the Tavel region of the Rhone Valley or the Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo region of Italy are dark rosés and excellent rosés.
There are four techniques used to make rosé:
• Direct pressing involves pressing red grapes immediately after harvest allowing minimal skin contact and occurs before fermentation begins. This produces the palest pink wine. Pale rosés usually deliver flavors of strawberries, raspberries, watermelon, cantaloupe. Pale Provence rosés are made using this technique.
• Saignée (French for “bleeding”) involves allowing a portion of red wine to “bleed” off early in fermentation. This produces wines darker than direct press. Saignée tends to promote raspberry and blackberry flavors and aromas. Saignée rosé wines also can be more tannic and suitable for aging.
• Maceration involves leaving the juice in contact with the skins for an extended period. The longer the maceration, the darker the color. When the desired color is achieved, the must—the mix of juice, skins, stems, and seeds—is pressed and fermentation begins. This is another popular method in Provence and is used to make their most serious rosés.
• A final method, particularly used in Champagne to produce rosé sparkling wine, involves blending a small amount of red wine into white wine. Champagne makers focus on a consistent product year upon year. Blending allows for the most control of the product.
Tasting notes
• Ultimate Provence UP Côtes de Provence Rosé 2022: Tangy edge plays well with juicy red fruits. Richer, more body than the diaphanous efforts of some Provence purveyors. $20-23 Link to my review
• William Chris Vineyards La Pradera Rosé, Texas High Plains 2022: Tasty red fruit with an emphasis on mourvèdre in this vintage. $24 Link to my review
• Wedding Oak Winery Sweetheart Rosé, Texas 2021: Delight, delicious fruit. Elegant, substantial. Complexity from a well-coordinated mélange of Texas red grapes. $29 Link to my review
Last round
Hyphenated and non-hyphenated. Ah, the ironies of the English language. Wine time.
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We celebrate the 248th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence tomorrow. There may be fireworks and parades, but most of us will simply honor the Fourth with family and friends. And barbecue, or at least outdoor time.
What wine do you pair with backyard festivities. Some ideas:
• The day is very likely to be hot. While heavy, bold, high alcohol red wines work well with barbecue and grilled steaks, such libations do not work well with July heat. Big red wines taste heavy. High alcohol and high heat do not play well together.
• There are light-bodied, chillable reds with enough body to pair with the fare, and their lower alcohol, fruit-forward presentation works with both heat and meat. Think gamay, lighter pinot noir, and offerings actually labeled as “chillable red.” All of these can be chilled, a good way to go in high summer.
• Amber wines, also inappropriately called “orange” wines. These are white wines made with skin contact like they were a red wine. Refreshing and hip. Great food wine with spicy food, sausage, grilled vegetables.
• Pet nat (pétillant naturel) is sparkling made the very old fashioned way—the way sparkling was made before méthode champenoise was invented. Like amber wines, the next big thing in wine. Ideal for casual, fun happenings. Bubbles buoy the Fourth vibe. Yeasty flavors and hint of residual sugar are ideal for barbecue seasonings.
• Rosé wines. Get over it, guys. Rosé wines are versatile and delicious and are not girly, girly sissified swill. Only insecure males think such thoughts.
• Versatile, food-friendly whites. Dry riesling, grüner veltliner, vinho verde (which can be white, rosé, or red). Excellent, refreshing wines that can be served quite chilled. Lower alcohol and good acidity makes them excellent food wines that fare well with fare in a summer scorcher.
Tasting notes
• Herzog Wine Cellars Lineage Rosé, Clarksburg 2022: Easy-going, pleasant delight. Perfect warm weather sipper with lighter food or just enjoyed by itself. Mevushal. $17-22 Link to my review
• Hager Matthias Pét Nat Grüner Veltliner 2021: Refreshing, lower alcohol effort that is and trendy and versatile and presents excellent fruit. $29 Link to my review
• Kivelstadt Cellars Wayward Son Skin Fermented Pinot Grigio, Pintail Ranch Vineyard, Clarksburg, Sonoma 2022: Tasty, serious skin-fermented amber wine made with pinot grigio. $25-32 Link to my review
• William Chris Vineyards La Pradera Vineyard Blend, Texas High Plains 2020: Rich, delicious celebration of a five-grape medley of Texas High Plains red fruit. Solid, smooth, easy drinker from significant Texas maker. $45-50
Last round
What did Luke Skywalker say on the 4th of July? “May the fourth be with you.” Wine time.
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Pét-Nat or Pétillant-Naturel. What the heck is that “next big thing” in wine?
The “next big thing” designation is ironic because, in truth, it is the oldest thing in sparkling wines. It was how sparkling wine was made before the development of the methods you know today. In English, Pétillant-Naturel simply means “naturally bubbling.”
Pét-Nat is made using a technique—“méthode ancestrale”—that originated in Limoux in southern France in the 1500s. It involves a single fermentation. Méthode champenoise or “traditional method” uses two fermentations to make Champagne and other sparkling wines.
Bottling takes place before the primary fermentation is complete. Yeasts remain actively converting sugars into alcohol. And into CO2—the bubbles. The wines tend to be lower in alcohol with softer, more delicate bubbles than sparkling made using traditional methods. Because there is less pressure—half that of Champagnne—Pét-Nat typically is sealed with a crown cap, the closure you find on beer or soda pop bottles.
Pét-Nat usually is unfiltered, so it often is cloudy. Those are the spent yeast cells that created the alcohol and bubbles. It is made with a variety of grapes, resulting in a spectrum of colors and styles. There are a wide range of aromas and flavors. Often there is a slight sweetness, although there are dry examples. Adjectives like wild, funky, rustic often are associated with Pét-Nat.
Christian Chaussard in Vouvray revived the ancient technique in the early 1990s when he accidentally produced a fizzy wine by bottling before fermentation was complete. He found the wine tasty. Buyers found something new and trendy. Pét-Nat started being the “next big thing.” At first, there was more buzz about it than sales or availability warranted, but that changed. You likely can find Pét-Nat at a well-stocked supermarket today. It typically is affordable, casual, refreshing. Lower alcohol makes it attractive for everyday drinking and to those seeking to reduce alcohol intake.
A caution. Pét-Nat production is hard to control and requires winemaker skill. Results can be variable, depending on the grapes used and where they were grown. Quality is not guaranteed. Pét-Nat is a process description, not a narrow wine description.
Worth a sip, especially if you are a new and trendy sort of sipper.
Tasting note
• Hager Matthias Pét-Nat Grüner Veltliner 2021: Refreshing, lower alcohol effort that is and trendy and versatile. Presents excellent fruit. Works well as aperitif. $20-29 Link to my review
Last round
I told my daughter to go to bed because cows were sleeping in the fields.
“What does that have to do with anything?” she asked.
“It means it is pasture bedtime,” I responded. Wine time.
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There is panic and turmoil in high dollar wines you and I do not buy.
This is not about big dollar wines we could buy—Caymus, Jordan, Daou. You can purchase them at higher-end grocery stores. The turmoil is with wines you only can buy from an allocation list or very high-end wine stores. Covid and an influx of wines competing at pompous price points upended everything.
A lot goes into wines in that rarified price category. Millions invested—in Napa vineyards, in famous winemakers, in famous architects for the winery and tasting rooms. All goes into the bottle price.
And then there is trophy wine branding. People buy such wines not just for silky tannins and layers of bing cherry, ripe raspberry, and blackcurrant backbone. People buy so they can say to themselves, and especially to others, they can buy the wine.
When a winery decides to play in that bedazzling arena, it must protect its brand. And that is when flop sweat starts dripping. Recent years have not been kind. Demand down. People pinching purses purchase product from lower shelves. Purveyors panicked when pricey vintages went unsold. Then—horror of horrors—they did the unthinkable. They discounted.
When you sell your wine for $750 a bottle, the play is “if you won’t pay this much, there is someone else who will, and when this sells, there aren’t any more.” But rarity and exclusiveness are evanescent qualities. When the first merchant decides to clear his shelf and sells the wine discounted to $500, the shift hits the fans. Why pay high when you can wait and buy low. People who can afford such luxuries figured this out long ago.
When a Calistoga high end winery discovered a shop was going out of business and offered their wine at clearance prices, the winery immediately sent a distributor to buy the entire inventory to protect the price point.
“The moment people feel the product is easy to get at a discounted price, all of a sudden the rarity has evaporated,” Dave Parker, CEO of rare-wine retailer Benchmark Wine Group in Napa, told Wine Spectator.
If you are like me, you are not going to buy a $750 bottle of wine even at $500. But it is nice to note that as wine over-supply and clearance pricing trickles down, we may be in line for some sweet deals.
Last round
An orangutan in the zoo has two books: The Bible and Darwin’s Origin Of Species. The orangutan is trying to figure out if he is his brother’s keeper—or his keeper’s brother. Wine time.
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